From Notes to Coursera/Stanford's Introduction to Philosophy, Chapter 9: Equality: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- "The following sentence is a substitution axiom for the binary relation constant q. Note that we need to allow for equations for all of the arguments of relational sentences. Au:Av:Ax:Ay:(q(u,v) & u=x & v=y => q(x,y))" In my system, I don't need another axiom; substitution is built in to the program: --- C:\logicagent>ruby logicbot.rb Hello I have loaded C:/logicagent/logicagent-api.yaml. C:/logicagent/graph.yaml loaded. > reset graph Okay, I have reset the graph. > John is older than William. Okay, John is older than William. > John = Jack Okay, John = Jack. > William = Bill Okay, William = Bill. > is Jack older than Bill? Yes, Jack is older than Bill. > --- The program can do substitution without needing another axiom.